Near the turn of the 3rd century walls were erected to fortify the municipality. Established trade routes infused the local economy, with grains, wool and metal-works being the primary exports, and wine, pottery and fine textiles begin imported. As the Roman Empire faced its fall troops were called home, and the last Roman occupant left Britain in the early 5th century giving way to the city''s decline. It would be more than 200 years before a new town was constructed on the site of present-day Covent Garden and Roman monks organized to convert the Saxons to Christianity. Restoration efforts were underway and new construction of the city consisted primarily of wood and thatched roofs. The population grew steadily along with a revival in trade. Wool making and metal-works again led the list of products being exported, and thus stimulated the stagnant economy.

In 842 the success of the city would attract invasions from the Danes. Battles between the English, the Danes and the Normans would plague the city for nearly a decade and in 851 the Danes attacked with great force and set fire to London. Successful, the Danes would rebuild and operate the city, though it never reached its former glory while in their power. It was 878 when King Alfred the Great defeated the Danes and proceeded to split the country between them. The Danes would move East whilst King Alfred claimed the South and West of England including the city of London. During his reign the city''s former glory was restored and the people of the city moved within the city walls for added protection from further invasion. Around the 10th century the economy surpassed its previous records and the early traces of traveling foreign merchants peddling their wares in the city began. The city would face repeated attempts to conquer the land by foreign tribes, but none was successful. It is said that during the 11th century a fleet of Norwegian Viking ships found their way up the Thames and made attempts to ransack the city. Londoners met the Vikings with spears thrown from the bridge. When the Vikings retreated they devised a scheme to protect their men and ships by stealing the thatched roofs of homes along the river, and using them for shelter. This protection allowed them to row up to the bridge, attach ropes to the pilings and row away, bringing the bridge with them. It is said that this is the origin of the nursery rhyme, ''London Bridge is falling down.''

This attack was followed by the brief rule of Danish King Cnut who did a masterful job of uniting the Anglo-Saxons and Danes. The economy flourished and by the end of the 11th century Edward the Confessor ruled the country from Winchester. It was during his reign that he commissioned the spectacular Westminster Abbey. At the time the palace at Westminster was a wooden structure. When Edward died his successor and brother-in-law Harrold would be crowned at the Abbey thus beginning a legacy of significance for Westminster and London. This infuriated Edward''s brother William who launched a victorious attack at the Battle of Hastings. William the Conqueror would be crowned on Christmas Day, 1066 in the newly finished Westminster Abbey, and commenced his successful leadership of the city. During these early Middle Ages the city grew again, and expansion was deemed necessary. People began constructing their houses outside the original city walls. William was responsible for many of the fortifications, which were enacted to protect the city, among them, the famous Tower of London. The Tower would become a symbol of the city and host future monarchs, guards, prisoners, an arsenal and even a zoo. During the decades that followed London would benefit from extensive international trade routes, abundant wealth and the early inklings of the grand splendor that was to come.

The 12th & 13th centuries were marked by religious contention, the introduction of taxes, the construction of a stone bridge to replace the former link between the banks of the Thames and the restoration of Westminster Abbey. The first outbreak of the Black Death occurred in 1348, killing nearly one third of the population. It would be the first but certainly not the last time the city would suffer through the plague, in fact, there would be nearly 20 outbreaks between this first occurrence and the Great Plague of 1665. In 1381 a peasant revolt inflamed by taxation led to the slaying of the Archbishop of Canterbury at the Tower of London. The mysterious events surrounding the coronation of King Richard III can be experienced today with a tour of the famed Tower. It is said that when King Edward IV died in 1483, his 13 year-old son Edward V was the rightful heir to the thrown. Edward IV''s brother, Richard Duke of Gloucester, became embroiled in a power struggle with his brother''s widow, Elizabeth. The exact circumstances are not known, but Edward V and his brother were swept to the Tower for safe keeping and royal officer Lord Hastings was charged with their care. By morning Hastings would be found beheaded on the Tower Green, while both brothers were found murdered and buried beneath the Garden Tower, which has since been called Bloody Tower with reference to the event. Though Richard III would be crowned in 1483, he would meet his fate at the hands of Henry Tudor''s forces on the battlegrounds of the War of the Roses in 1485.

There is much evidence of the life and culture of Tudor London. Beyond the remaining legacies, notably Richmond, Hyde, St. James and Regent''s parks and the Royal Exchange, there remains the results from a survey of Londoner''s conducted by John Stow, a retired tailor, in 1598. The survey serves today as a testament of the life and times in Tudor London, but unfortunately the Great Fire of 1666 destroyed much of the Tudor construction which served the city during the century. Henry Tudor worked hard to establish his Tudor dynasty, it most certainly must have been a relief that his wife gave birth to two sons. During his reign Henry VII imposed high taxes, and sent collectors about the city and country to collect dues. At the same time preparing eldest son Arthur for his duty as king, while Henry went about the traditional theology teachings pursued by the second son of a king. But Arthur died quite early on, so at the tender age of 11 Henry began his royal education, a strange irony that as a boy Henry would be a student of the Catholic church, and in later years develop the Reformation.

When Henry VIII, succeeded his father he declared the Whitehall Palace the official royal residence. This declaration marked the end of the Tower''s duty as a royal residence, but the fortress would be used for years to come as mint, an armory, the site of the execution of Anne Boleyn and Kathryn Howard and finally a museum. During Henry VIII''s role as King of England his infamous relations with his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, led to the English Reformation. Under the reformation a declaration was made that the king was in fact ''Supreme Head of the Church.'' Though Henry VIII did not fully support the ideas of Martin Luther, his split from the Roman Catholic Church was necessary in order to divorce his first wife, who, he was convinced, could not bear him a male heir because she had been his brother''s wife. Londoner''s were divided during the Reform, and the king declared all theatres a distraction from work so they were banned from the city. Southwark, today the south bank of the Thames in London, became the entertainment centre. So popular was Southwark, even in Elizabethan times, that Shakespeare, the renown Bard of Avon, constructed his theatre on the south bank in 1599. The original burned nearly 15 years later, but a authentically restored replica marks the Thames southern bank today. A fascinating tour of the Tower of London will illustrate the intricate and entertaining history of Tudor London, along with the many royals who were involved with the evolution of the city during this time.

Following the death of Elizabeth I, James I took the thrown commencing the Stuart dynasty, and quickly became highly unpopular with Londoners and English alike. His belief in his own ''divine right as king'' led him to impose using the law, his Protestant beliefs. The Catholics were vengeful and devised a plot aimed at blowing up the houses of Parliament. On November 5, 1605 the plot was foiled and Guy Fawkes was discovered beneath the building armed with a keg of explosives. This event is commemorated each year in London, and throughout England, on November 5, Guy Fawkes day. Religious contention continued to plague Londoner''s throughout the early 17th century. It was not until the Restoration of the Monarchy when Charles II took the thrown and the people of the city would be free to enjoy entertainment once more. It was during this time that Theatre Royale Drury Lane earned a royal warrant, and Londoner''s were happy again. Unfortunately the Stuart dynasty is marked by two major disasters. The first was the Great Plague of 1665. Though the city had suffered through nearly 20 outbreaks in the previous centuries, this new strand was the most virulent so far. So virulent in fact, that the disease was able to kill people in a matter of hours. It was commonly considered cats and dogs who were the carriers of the disease, so the crown immediately ordered them all killed. The spread of the disease surged after these efforts as unbeknownst to them, rats were the true carriers and they had killed their natural enemy. The plague was rampant and people were quarantined in their homes. Suffers broke out in a red rash, circling their necks, attempts were made to ward off the disease with pockets full of herbs thought to protect one from it, but the rash quickly spread and symptoms included sneezing and overall deterioration which lead to death. The popular English nursery rhyme ''Ring o'' ring o'' roses, pocket full of posies, aa-choo, aa-choo, we all fall down,'' is an eerie reminder of the lives lost to the Black Death in London. The royal family, court and doctors had left the city, and the plague continued to claim victims for months. Unsanitary conditions in the city contributed to the spread and prolonged occurrence of the disease, the hot summer climate perpetuated it as well. It was not until the next great catastrophe that the city would rid itself from the plague. In September of 1666 a small fire started in the bakery on Pudding Lane, but a strong wind would foster the small fire into a raging inferno spread through the city and burned for four days. The devastation of these two events marked London history forever. Only 8 lives were lost in the Great Fire, but over 100,000 had been lost to the plague. The city was decimated, including the original St. Paul''s Cathedral, tens of thousands of homes, shops and churches. Today an imposing gold monument stands at the location of the fire, and remains a bold reminder of this tragedy.

More than 100,000 people were displaced following the fires, but the leveling of the city provided an exceptional opportunity to rebuild the city. Restoration of the city began with a proclamation that all new construction must be built using stone and slate to prevent the disaster from happening again. The taxation of imported coal financed the restoration of public buildings and places of worship. Slowly London would surpass her former glory and begin the 18th century with a fresh face. Many elegant buildings were constructed near Knightsbridge and Bloomsbury, and the Palladian Revivalist architecture inspired by Lord Burlington, who commissioned the Burlington House at Piccadilly, swept across the city. Many examples of this elegant architecture remain in the city today. It was also during the 18th century Georgian era that efforts were made to improve the city''s infrastructure. During reconstruction period fresh water was piped to the city from miles away, and though tenants had to pay for this service, the water system was welcomed. Soon the inklings of public transportation began with Hackney carriages and oil lamps lit the streets. The Treasury building, the Royal Horse Guards and the Westminster Bridge were also erected during this time, this proved London was shaping up quite nicely.

But religious strife did not take the back burner so simply. A group of Protestant rioters infuriated by the Catholic Relief Act of 1780, which granted Catholics basic civil rights, marched through the streets of London led by Lord Gordon. This began nearly a week of murder and looting in the city. This would however be the last time the city would be plagued by terror at the hands of religious radicals. The Gordon Riots inspired authorities to impose repressive measures to restrain citizens from protest or reform-minded publication.

John Nash''s restoration of Buckingham House was completed in 1835, just two years before Queen Victoria took the thrown and declared it the official royal residence, now Buckingham Palace. The industrial revolution spurred the economy to a booming status. Industry in London during the early 19th included the canning of foods and beverages, leather goods, cloth and clothing, clocks, watches and jewelry as well as furniture and tool making. Trade was better than ever, the city of London was full of much splendor, and hosted a vast array of people from all walks of life, including an influx of Irish immigrants following the Potato Famine of 1848. But as the population of the city surged, even though the city had stretched far beyond the north bank and well into the south, there were too little resources to accommodate the citizens and the city became dirty and dank. Unsanitary conditions led to outbreaks of cholera. Though the aristocracy was faring well in Victoria London, there was a great deal of overcrowding and poverty. The impoverished sought solace from cheap gin that became a most popular habit. But overindulgence ensued to the point that Parliament stepped in to levy a high tax on libations to limit its consumption. The tax was successful, and the poverty stricken found the gin tax cost prohibitive. Investments were made in the British navy and the fleet reached its peak during the 1800s. It became desperately obvious that money needed to be spent to improve the quality of life for Londoner''s. Joseph Bazalgette was commissioned to design and construct a sewer system that could accommodate the city. His plan was a success and almost immediately impacted the city''s death rate. Outbreaks of cholera and other disease were curtailed and the city was a much nicer place to be. Vast improvements were made to the public transportation system as well. The first underground rail lines commenced in 1863, and the horse drawn carriages and trams of the 1870''s were electrified two decades later. Victorian London saw the reconstruction of Parliament after the original wood structure burned. The new accommodations are the grand, Gothic design we see today on the north bank of the Thames, its famous bell tower has been called ''Big Ben'' but this perhaps is a misnomer as originally ''Big Ben'' was the name for the bell that struck on the hour. Big Ben remains a symbol of the city, and one of the most frequently photographed landmarks in the city, but many other popular tourist attractions were completed during these magnificent years including the Victoria & Albert, Science and Natural History museums, New Scotland Yard and Eros who graces Piccadilly Square.

By the turn of the 20th century the population was near 6 million in London, up from near 1 million in 1800. Trade was strong and motor buses began their routes through the city in 1904. Tourism began to be an important industry in Britain and many lavish properties opened to accommodate visitors and diplomats. The Ritz opened in 1906, elegant department stores Harrod''s and Selfridges followed swiftly behind. World War I had damaging effects on the city. The first Zeppelin bombs fell in 1915 and overall the British suffered 650 fatalities as a result of the ''War to end all Wars.'' The population of the city continued to balloon and the expanses of London reached so far as Tooting, Tottenham, Watling, Morden and Roehampton with estates being commissioned by the city council. But unemployment was high and laborers revolted in the first organized Strike in 1926. By 1939 the population had reached its peak at nearly 9 million Londoners. Products from the industrial age shifted from food refinery to aircraft and motor vehicle manufacturing and electronics. It was during this time that an influx of Jewish immigrants settled the West End of the city as they flocked to London to escape religious persecution. The German threat was so imposing that Londoners went so far as to send their children to the English countryside to save them from the threat of the blitzkrieg. World War II would prove devastating for the city. Londoners sought shelter from the bombs in underground stations. The Blitz was followed by a missile attack launched by the Germans. Overall the death toll would reach 32,000 with nearly twice that many people suffering serious injuries. The city itself suffered the effects of war as nearly one third of the city was leveled.

Post war London restoration efforts were underway, and actions were taken to move industry to the outskirts of the city and beyond. Central London was redeveloped to include many museums, galleries and shops. During the 1950s the economy was back to booming. Automobile factories turned out cars a record pace while aircraft were similarly constructed and equally valuable industries. The dissolution of the British Empire greatly effected the landscape of London. Immigrants from former British colonies flocked to the city, but the newly independent colonies began trading with other countries and so international trade reductions effected the formerly successful dock area. In 1973 Britain joined the EEC and sealed the fate of the London''s Docklands forever. The recession in the 1970s forced industry out of the city in search of lower rent and cheaper labor. Unemployment in the city was high, but tourism would infuse the economy and stimulate employment again. Today Britain remains one of the single most popular tourist destinations in the world. People travel to Britain, specifically London, to catch a glimpse of living history.

The City of London - On the north bank of the Thames, this area was the land originally settled by the Romans and offers a plethora of shops and restaurants as well as the financial district, and St. Paul''s Cathedral.

Bankside - The south bank of the Thames from Tower Bridge to Southwark Bridge offers tourists a great vantage point of the Tower of London, Shakespeare''s Globe Theatre, Southwark cathedral, the Tate Modern museum and many shops and stores to keep you entertained.

Westminster - The district directly across from the South Bank offers The Houses of Parliament, Big Ben and Westminster Abbey & Cathedral.

Whitehall - The neighborhood next door to Westminster offers the Prime Minister''s residence on 10 Downing Street and the famed Scotland Yard.

The West End - Home to London''s Theatre District.

Knightsbridge & South Kensington - Home to city''s most elegant and luxurious retailers, hotels, restaurants and private estates. High-end stores such as Harrod''s and Harvey Nichols make themselves at home in this area.

Kensington High Street - Home of the famed royal Kensington Palace & Gardens and the shrine for St. Albert, this beautiful area on the corner of Hyde Park offers a plethora of shops and store fronts as well as markets for daily shopping.

Bloomsbury - The district which surround the University of London and the British Museum offers the lively Camden Lock Market, the London Zoo and a great selection of shops, pubs, clubs and boutiques.

Chinatown - This small, vibrant collection of Asian restaurants and food shops is sure to delight, and can be found just beyond Leichester Square.

The South Bank - Offers exceptional views of the city, Big Ben & The Houses of Parliament as well as access to the Dali Museum, the London Aquarium and the London Eye.

Covent Garden - Offers many more posh shops and is especially full of local theatre companies.

Soho - This trendy area is full of shops offering retro fashion which is so popular with British youth.

Nottinghill - This artsy area is famous for their summer carnival, trendy café''s and antique shops.

London Heathrow International Airport
London Gatwick International Airport
London Stansted Airport
London City Airport
Luton Airport

American tourists shopping in Britain can claim their value-added tax for a rebate, provided that more than £50-£100 (depending on the store) is spent at the same store on the same day. Now, not all shops and stores participate in the rebate program, so you will want to check if you are interested in taking advantage of the program. Participating retailers generally offer a ''Tax Free Shopping'' sign in their window. If this is the case, ask the vendor for the proper documentation. They will usually complete a form describing the merchandise purchased and stating the amount of tax paid. When you leave, no later than 60 days after the date of the purchase, present your receipt to Customs where you will likely be asked to show the merchandise for approval and then directed to the tax-free refund counter for an immediate refund. ''Tax free'' shopping is a popular option, if you leave time to deal with customs before you depart!

Here are some of the most popular shopping areas as you travel through London:

Knightsbridge - World famous department store Harrod''s is the focal point of this shopping district. Throughout Knightsbridge you will also find world-class fashion designers.

South Kensington - Many moderately priced retailers including Lush, but this is also a hot spot for open-air markets.

Kings Road & Sloan Square - This fashionable district offers chic and trendy fashion and decorative items.

New Bond Street - Fashion designer labels abound in this posh district. Famous makers include DKNY, Armani, Versace, Prada and Calvin Klein.

Carnaby Street - Serving the upper echelon as the center of London fashion for decades, this trendy area is jam-packed with high end boutiques.

Oxford Street - This 2 mile-long thoroughfare offers everything you could ever possibly need. There are also some really great deals to be had in the surrounding areas as well.

Portobello Market - One of the largest markets in London, you will find a interesting array of the old and new waiting for the well seasoned bargain hunter.

Petticoat Lane Market - Though you will find nearly everything imaginable the clothing selection is the finest of all the open-air markets in London.

Camden Lock Market - For anything and everything this north-side market is sure to delight.

The Tower of London - This royal estate has hosted many of Britain''s powerful rulers and is now guarded by the Beoman Warders, or Beefeaters. A tour of the Tower by one of the Beefeaters is well worth your time, their energetic story telling is engaging and you will learn all about Traitors'' Gate, the famed black ravens and even the learn about the execution of some of Henry VIII''s wives.

Tower Bridge - Not to be confused with London bridge, it''s less illustrious down-river sister. This bridge is a remarkable wonder, and travelers can explore the history of the bridge by climbing the tower and walking across the walkways which run the length between the towers. Take advantage of the most spectacular views!

The London Eye - The premier London attraction. This magnificent ''ferris wheel'' offers the most fabulous views of London and beyond. It takes some 30 minutes to revolve completely around the wheel and is a fantastic ride, day or night!

Buckingham Palace - Over 3 centuries old, this marvelous estate is the official residence of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. The Palace is open to the public in the late summer months between August and September, but the grounds are a beautiful place to explore off-season. The monument to Queen Victoria is quite a sight to see, as is the ritual of the changing of the guards.

St. Paul''s Cathedral - One of the world''s most famous Cathedrals offers stunning views from the spectacular dome.

Big Ben & The Houses of Parliament - Big Ben stands high above the Houses of Parliament and chimes every hour. The magnificent architecture of the Houses of Parliament make it a splendid picture from the south side of the Thames, but a tour of the buildings are equally interesting.

Westminster Abbey - One of the finest examples of Gothic-style architecture in the city, it dates back to the 11th century and has hosted numerous royal coronations, marriages and burials.

Shakespeare''s Globe Theatre - This modern replica glistens on the south bank of the Thames. Productions of the bard are performed here regularly.

Brian Turners of Mayfair - 44 Grosvenor Square. This famous British chef offers modern British innovations alongside classic traditional dishes with a twist. Though pricey, this eatery is worth every pound!

Fox & Hounds - Latchmere Road. This pub is part of a small locally operated chain, and they offer a great menu and a spacious bar to enjoy a beer and some football.

International

Hakkasan - Hanway Place. This modern Chinese restaurant was the first of its kind to be awarded a Michelin Star. The Chinese cuisine is fine and the interior is stunning.

Italian Graffiti - Wardour Street. This trattoria''s West End location lends well to starting your theatre going evening. The traditional Italian cuisine is superb and it''s well priced!

Tsunami - Voltaire Street. Considered one of the best Japanese restaurants in London, oysters are their specialty. Enjoy your fine fare in their subtle atmosphere.

Tamarind - Queen Street. For a wide range of Indian dishes Tamarind will not disappoint.

For Afternoon Tea

The Ritz - 150 Piccadilly. Taking tea at the Ritz is one of the finest experiences in the city of London. Reservations are highly recommended.

Orangery at Kensington Palace - Kensington Gardens. One the grounds of the royal Kensington Palace the Orangery offers an afternoon tea complete with luscious cakes, fine entertainment and exquisite views.